Second Order Circuits: Difference between revisions

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'''Second order circuits''' are circuits that have two energy storage
'''Second order circuits''' are circuits that have two energy storage elements, resulting in second-order differential equations.
elements, resultingin second-order differential equations. The circuits have to be cast in terms of irreducible elements (i.e. combine L's and C's into one when possible).[[File:Unforced RLC Circuit.png|thumb|An unforced RLC circuit]]
Consider an un-forced RLC circuit. We want to find <math>V_C</math>.


First, we can use KVL and KCL
One application of second order circuits is in timing computers. As we will see, an underdamped RLC circuit can generate a sinusoidal wave.


<math>V_R + V_L + V_C = 0</math>
There are primarily two types of second order circuits:


<math>iR + L \frac{di}{dt} + V_C = 0</math>
* Parallel RLC circuits
* Series RLC circuits


Next, we can use <math>i = C \frac{dV_C}{dt}</math> and substitution to get
each with two responses:
* Natural response (no power source)
* Forced response (has power source)


<math>RC \frac{dV_C}{dt} + L \frac{d}{dt} \frac{C V_C} {dt} V_C = 0</math>
This page will analyze them and derive some useful equations.


Changing the order and moving the constants,
= Parallel RLC Circuits Natural Response =


<math>LC \frac{d^2 V}{dt^2} + RC \frac{dV_C}{dt} + V_C = 0</math>
[[File:Parallel Unforced RLC Circuit.png|thumb|A parallel unforced RLC circuit]]


Moving constants away from the first term to get a ''second-order differential equation,''
By KCL,


<math>\frac{d^2V_C}{dt^2} + \frac{R}{L} \frac{dV_C}{dt} + \frac{1}{LC} V_C = 0</math>
<math>
\frac{v}{R} + \frac{1}{L} \int_0^t v d\tau
+ I_0 + C \frac{dv}{dt} = 0
</math>
 
By differentiating once with respect to
<math>t</math> and rearranging some constants,
 
<math>
\frac{d^2 v}{dt^2} + \frac{1}{RC}
\frac{dv}{dt} + \frac{v}{LC} = 0
</math>
 
we get a ''homogeneous second-order
differential equation'', which has a standard solution that I
will not go into detail. Briefly, it is solved by assuming
<math>v = A e^{st}</math> since derivatives of <math>v</math>
must take the same form to cancel out to zero.
 
By applying the standard solution, we have
 
<math>
A e^{st} \left(s^2 + \frac{s}{RC} + \frac{1}{LC} \right) = 0
</math>
 
== Characteristic Equation ==
 
The above simplifies to
 
<math>
s^2 + \frac{s}{RC} + \frac{1}{LC} = 0
</math>
 
This is the '''characteristic equation''' of the differential
equation, as the root of the quadratic determines properties
of <math>v(t)</math>
 
<math>
s_{1,2} = - \frac{1}{2RC} \pm \sqrt{
\left(\frac{1}{2RC}\right)^2 - \frac{1}{LC}}
= - \alpha \pm \sqrt{\alpha^2 - \omega_0^2}
</math>
 
where
 
<math>
\alpha = \frac{1}{2RC}
</math>
 
and
 
<math>
\omega_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{LC}}
</math>
 
It can be pretty easily proven that the sum of the two roots is also a solution
 
<math>
v = A_1 e^{s_1 t} + A_2 e^{s_2 t}
</math>
 
== Forms ==
[[File:Equations for Analyzing the Step Response of Parallel RLC Circuits.png|alt=Equations for Analyzing the Step Response of Parallel RLC Circuits|thumb|Equations for Analyzing the Step Response of Parallel RLC Circuits]]
Depending on the root, there are three forms:
* '''Overdamped''', where there are real, distinct solutions
* '''Underdamped''', where there are complex solutions
* '''Critically damped''', where the solutions are not distinct.
 
 
=== Overdamped ===
 
For an overdamped response, we have
 
<math>
v = A_1 e^{s_1 t} + A_2 e^{s_2 t}
</math>
 
The A's can be solved by substituting in <math>v(0)</math> and
<math>dv(0) / dt = i_C / C</math>
 
<math>
v(0) = A_1 + A_2
</math>
 
<math>
dv(0)/dt = A_1 s_1 + A_2 s_2 = \frac{1}{C} \left( \frac{-V_0}{R} - I_0 \right)
</math>
 
=== Underdamped ===
 
For an underdamped response, we have
 
<math>
s_{1,2} = - \alpha \pm j \omega_d
</math>
 
where there is damped radian frequency
 
<math>
\omega_d = \sqrt{w_0^2 - \alpha^2}
</math>
 
From Euler's identity, the natural response comes to
 
<math>
v(t) = B_1 e^{-\alpha t} \cos \omega_d t + B_2 e^{-\alpha t} \sin \omega_d t
</math>
 
The rest is identical to that of overdamped:
 
<math>
B_1 = V_0
</math>
 
<math>
-\alpha B_1 + \omega_d B_2 =  \frac{1}{C} \left( \frac{-V_0}{R} - I_0 \right)
</math>
 
==== Characteristics ====
 
Voltage alternates between positive and negative values due to the two
types of energy-storage elements. It's like a mass suspended on a
spring.
 
The oscillation rate is fixed by <math>\omega_d</math>, which is why it
is called the '''damped radian frequency'''.
 
The oscillation amplitude decreases exponentially at a rate determined
by <math>\alpha</math>, so it is called the '''damping factor'''.
 
Notice that when <math>R \neq 0</math>, there is <math>\alpha > 0</math>
and the circuit is damped.
 
= Series RLC Circuits Natural Response =
 
[[File:Unforced RLC Circuit.png|thumb|An unforced series RLC circuit]]
 
Calculations are very similar to that of parallel circuits, so I'll
speed things up.
 
 
The second order differential from KVL is
 
<math>
\frac{d^2 i}{dt^2} + \frac{R}{L} \frac{di}{dt} + \frac{i}{LC} = 0
</math>
 
The resulting characteristic equation is
 
<math>
s^2 + \frac{R}{L}s + \frac{1}{LC} = 0
</math>
 
with roots
 
<math>
s_{1,2} = - \frac{R}{2L} \pm \sqrt{\left( \frac{R}{2L} \right)^2 -
\frac{1}{LC}} = - \alpha \pm \sqrt{\alpha^2 - \omega_0^2}
</math>
 
with neper frequency <math>\alpha = \frac{R}{2L} rad/s</math> and
resonant radian frequency <math>\omega_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{LC}} rad / s</math>
 
The form equations are identical to parallel, only with different
<math>\alpha</math>:
[[File:Equations for Analyzing the Step Response of Series RLC Circuits.png|thumb|Equations for Analyzing the Step Response of Series RLC Circuits]]
 
'''Overdamped:'''
 
<math>
i(t) = A_1 e^{s_1 t} + A_2 e^{s_2 t}
</math>
 
<math>
A_1 + A_2 = I_0
</math>
 
<math>
A_1 s_1 + A_2 s_2 = \frac{1}{L}(-RI_0 - V_0)
</math>
 
'''Underdamped:'''
 
<math>
i(t) = B_1 e^{-\alpha t} \cos \omega_d t + B_2 e^{-\alpha t} \sin \omega_d t
</math>
 
<math>
B_1 = I_0
</math>
 
<math>
-\alpha B_1 + \omega_d B_2 = \frac{1}{L} (-RI_0 - V_0)
</math>
 
'''Critically damped:'''
 
<math>
i(t) = D_1 t e^{- \alpha t} + D_2 t e^{- \alpha t}
</math>
 
<math>
D_2 = I_0
</math>
 
<math>
D_1 - \alpha D_2 = \frac{1}{L} (-RI_0 - V_0)
</math>


[[Category:Electrical Engineering]]
[[Category:Electrical Engineering]]

Latest revision as of 22:26, 8 March 2024

Second order circuits are circuits that have two energy storage elements, resulting in second-order differential equations.

One application of second order circuits is in timing computers. As we will see, an underdamped RLC circuit can generate a sinusoidal wave.

There are primarily two types of second order circuits:

  • Parallel RLC circuits
  • Series RLC circuits

each with two responses:

  • Natural response (no power source)
  • Forced response (has power source)

This page will analyze them and derive some useful equations.

Parallel RLC Circuits Natural Response

A parallel unforced RLC circuit

By KCL,

By differentiating once with respect to and rearranging some constants,

we get a homogeneous second-order differential equation, which has a standard solution that I will not go into detail. Briefly, it is solved by assuming since derivatives of must take the same form to cancel out to zero.

By applying the standard solution, we have

Characteristic Equation

The above simplifies to

This is the characteristic equation of the differential equation, as the root of the quadratic determines properties of

where

and

It can be pretty easily proven that the sum of the two roots is also a solution

Forms

Equations for Analyzing the Step Response of Parallel RLC Circuits
Equations for Analyzing the Step Response of Parallel RLC Circuits

Depending on the root, there are three forms:

  • Overdamped, where there are real, distinct solutions
  • Underdamped, where there are complex solutions
  • Critically damped, where the solutions are not distinct.


Overdamped

For an overdamped response, we have

The A's can be solved by substituting in and

Underdamped

For an underdamped response, we have

where there is damped radian frequency

From Euler's identity, the natural response comes to

The rest is identical to that of overdamped:

Characteristics

Voltage alternates between positive and negative values due to the two types of energy-storage elements. It's like a mass suspended on a spring.

The oscillation rate is fixed by , which is why it is called the damped radian frequency.

The oscillation amplitude decreases exponentially at a rate determined by , so it is called the damping factor.

Notice that when , there is and the circuit is damped.

Series RLC Circuits Natural Response

An unforced series RLC circuit

Calculations are very similar to that of parallel circuits, so I'll speed things up.


The second order differential from KVL is

The resulting characteristic equation is

with roots

with neper frequency and resonant radian frequency

The form equations are identical to parallel, only with different :

Equations for Analyzing the Step Response of Series RLC Circuits

Overdamped:

Underdamped:

Critically damped: